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George_George wrote: Where to look for documents for cycles needed for a specific instruction (e.g. LEA and MUL)?
Download the datasheet for the CPU.
George_George wrote: "it assumes a linear address space" -- it you mean low layer CPU/register or high layer C/C++?
It's complicated and very low level. I suggest you start reading something like this[^].
Steve
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Thanks Steve,
"datasheet for the CPU" -- could you give me some links or keywords to search? I am new to this topic. 
regards,
George
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Have you Googled for "Pentium Datasheet"?
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Thanks Steve,
1.
I have read the link you referred. It talks about how protected mode is using segment based accessment model. But during the whole article, it never mentioned what means linear and non-lnear -- and this is my question.
2.
Could you provide a link for the data sheet you means please? Sorry I am new to this area.
regards,
George
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George_George wrote: I have read the link you referred. It talks about how protected mode is using segment based accessment model. But during the whole article, it never mentioned what means linear and non-lnear -- and this is my question.
This is an oversimplification, but here goes.
In protected mode a number of segment register are used:
CS : Code segment
DS : Data segment
SS : Stack segment
ES : Extra segment
FS : Another extra segment
GS : Yet another extra segment
Different instructions use different segments for different purposes (some instructions also allow for the default segment used to be overridden). Each segment can represent a physically distinct linearly addressable memory space; it’s possible to set things up so that memory addressable in one segment is not addressable in another. In Windows most of the segment registers map to the same memory, which is good as languages such as C/C++ have no concept of segments (or you could think of it as only supporting one segment). The FS segment is an exception however and serves a special purpose: the memory in it is the TIB. So languages like C/C++ can access the TIB the same memory is also mapped into the other segments. The address in the other segments where it’s mapped is stored at FS:[0x18].
George_George wrote: Could you provide a link for the data sheet you means please? Sorry I am new to this area.
See here[^]. Makes good bedtime reading¿
Steve
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Thanks Steve,
1.
I understand the concept of segment. My question is what means linear and non-linear address? My confusion is, I did some search, but can not find any concept like linear or non-linear. Any comments or ideas?
2.
Sorry I am new to Intel manual, and looks like there is quite a few. To look up instruction machine cycle for x64, I should look at the following two manuals?
Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual
Volume 2A: Instruction Set Reference, A-M
Describes the format of the instruction and provides reference pages for instructions (from A to M). This volume also contains the table of contents for both Volumes 2A and 2B.
Download ›
(PDF 2.99MB) Order a printed copy ›
(SKU #253666)
Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual
Volume 2B: Instruction Set Reference, N-Z
Provides reference pages for instructions (from N to Z). VMX instructions are treated in a separate chapter. This volume also contains the appendices and index support for Volumes 2A and 2B.
Download ›
(PDF 5.60MB) Order a printed copy ›
(SKU #253667)
regards,
George
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1.
From the same article, below your quoted sentence.
The LEA instruction uses hardwired address generation tables that makes multiplying by a select set of numbers very fast (for example, multiplying by 3, 5, and 9). Twisted, but true.
That means LEA instruction is faster than MUL only for a small set of multipliers's value.
2.
George_George wrote: The TEB's linear address can be found at offset 0x18 in the TEB." -- what means linear address? Something like array, which elements are put next to each other?
I think it means direct address, i.e.
mov eax,dword ptr fs:[00000018h] load eax with the address of TEB, hence the following instruction
mov eax,dword ptr [eax+24h] loads eax with value found at offset 0x24 int the TEB (the Thread ID).
George_George wrote: What means non-linear address?
I suppose it is indirect addressing (via FS register in this context).
If the Lord God Almighty had consulted me before embarking upon the Creation, I would have recommended something simpler.
-- Alfonso the Wise, 13th Century King of Castile.
This is going on my arrogant assumptions. You may have a superb reason why I'm completely wrong.
-- Iain Clarke
[My articles]
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Thanks CPallini,
1.
What means "hardwired address generation tables"? Show more descriptions please?
2.
I am confused about your two assembly instruction because I think direct access mean not using pointer, i.e. [] operator in assembly language. But you are using [] in both assembly language statements and I think the two samples given should be both indirect/pointer/non-linear accessing. Please feel free to correct me if I am wrong.
regards,
George
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George_George wrote: "hardwired address generation tables"
It's referring the electronics in the CPU.
Steve
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Thanks Steve,
I am a little confused. MUL is based on shifting operation, but as mentioned, it is slower than LEA for some special operations, e.g. * 2, *3, *5, etc.
How LEA is implemented and why it is faster than MUL?
regards,
George
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Carlo's first reply to you was very clear:
"The LEA instruction uses hardwired address generation tables that makes multiplying by a select set of numbers very fast (for example, multiplying by 3, 5, and 9)."
LEA can operate at hardware level and thus is significantly faster than MUL. But this applies only for a small set of numbers.
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Sorry for my bad English, Rajesh!
My confusion is,
LEA mean load effective address, and the purpose of this instruction is to get the value of the address, and so how could it be used for the purpose of multiplication?
regards,
George
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Yes, LEA means "Load effective address". But lead can not only load an address, it can compute it on the fly.
LEA EAX,[ESP+14]
puts the result of (value of ESP) plus 14 into EAX.
And it can compute more complicated calculations:
LEA EAX,[EAX*4+EAX]
works, and as I got from the text you have given, it does not actually use a calculation (involving things like cache access and multiply units). Instead, it uses a table lookup. But that does only work for for some multipliers.
So, in effect, for certain multipliers, LEA is faster than MUL is.
Let's think the unthinkable, let's do the undoable, let's prepare to grapple with the ineffable itself, and see if we may not eff it after all.
Douglas Adams, "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency"
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Thanks jhwurmbach,
You bring good point. My further question, in my previous experience with table looking or similar implementation, it only deals with constants' lookup with limited numbers (e.g. lookup one's ID by its name in a large table). So, both input and output are finite.
How could LEA use table to deal with multiplication? My confusion is, since multiplication has infinite possible input and output, how could a constant size table be used to deal with all values?
regards,
George
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Hmm. Here, at least the input is limited to the multiplicants mentioned.
But the remaining number of results would still be very high.
Let's think the unthinkable, let's do the undoable, let's prepare to grapple with the ineffable itself, and see if we may not eff it after all.
Douglas Adams, "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency"
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Thanks jhwurmbach,
Could you explain or describe how multiplication could be implemented as table look-up solution please?
regards,
George
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Some more read material: Pentium Optimization Cross-Reference[^].
From the page: LEA is better than SHL on the Pentium because it pairs in both pipes, SHL pairs only in the U pipe.
Also, as CPallini pointed out, the document states that lea can be beneficial than mul only when multiplied by 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9.
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Thanks Rajesh,
I read through the related section you referred. Really good.
1.
MUL is implemented through SHL? My previous thought is CPU has an individual multiplication implementation, especially for values to multiply are not power of 2 (e.g. * 3);
2.
Why when multiplying "2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9" are better to use LEA? How do we get such numbers?
regards,
George
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You need to understand how the effective address is calculated in x86 CPUs.
I'm not an expert, but from here[^]
The offset part of the memory address can be specified either directly as a static value (called a displacement) or through an address computation made up of one or more of the following components:
Displacement—An 8-, 16-, or 32-bit value.
Base—The value in a general-purpose register.
Index—The value in a general-purpose register except EBP.
Scale factor—A value of 2, 4, or 8 that is multiplied by the index value.
An effective address is computed by:
Offset = Base + (Index * Scale) + displacement
So the address generation logic provides a rapid way to compute B + I*S + D, (and this has to be very fast as it is done before the memory access) all the article was saying was that the LEA instruction allows the programmer to access the result of this instruction that clearly executes in one cycle, which back when the article was written, was presumably faster than using the integer ALU. Note that as the Scale factor is restricted to being 1,2,4 or 8 there are limited equations that can be calculated. To multiply by 5 you would calculate base + 4*base etc..
It may not be relevant today.
Peter
"Until the invention of the computer, the machine gun was the device that enabled humans to make the most mistakes in the smallest amount of time."
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Thanks Peter,
I like the article and read through it last evening. Three more comments,
1.
I found two places in the document are conflicting, they are
- "Modern operating system and applications use the (unsegmented) memory model¾ all the segment registers are loaded with the same segment selector so that all memory references a program makes are to a single linear-address space." -- looks like segment is useless since unsegment model is used?
- "The offset which results from adding these components is called an effective address of the selected segment. Each of these components can have either a positive or negative (2's complement) value, with the exception of the scaling factor." -- why still needs segment selector to calculate? Conflicting with last statement, which is unsegment model?
2.
"Note that the value of the EIP may not match with the current instruction because of instruction prefetching. The only way to read the EIP is to execute a CALL instruction and then read the value of the return instruction pointer from the procedure stack." -- my confusion is, EIP is next instruction to execute, and why return address is the same as EIP? Are they related?
3.
"you generally create segment selectors with assembler directives and symbols. The assembler and/or linker then creates the actual segment selectors associated with these directives and symbols." -- what does this mean? Does it mean all segment related instruction will be ignored or modified by linker before execution?
regards,
George
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hi all,
i have an application that installs a hook(WH_GETMESSAGE) that handles mouse events, in case of WM_MOUSEMOVE my application need a notification with the msg structure associated with WM_MOUSEMOVE. I tried SendMessage its not woking ( i think its because of msg is a pointer). is any other way to do this.
Thanks & Regards
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Does this[^] helpful for you?
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code for checking an Invalid IP address by using Regular expression,Validators and QLineEdit ? It should show the IP address dialog as ( . . . ) instead of (000.000.000.000).
(i hav done this by setting mask and creating a regular expression and after that setting the validator.. and it works but it shows the IP address dialog as i hav written above)
modified on Wednesday, July 16, 2008 6:59 AM
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